Model:

• Ideal or correct performance of a skill
• Performer or demonstrator of a skill

• Teacher/instructor
• Student
• Other (e.g., pictures, video, animations)

Demonstrations

• A model is a demonstration or performance which a student can “copy”
• It is also the performer/demonstrator
• Students tend to model what they see
• Verbal cues should match the demonstration
• Teachers should model skills/behaviors constantly
• Model + verbal cues encompass visual & auditory learning styles
• Three demonstrations are optimum

Vicarious Modeling

• Vicarious learning occurs when student observes the outcome/product of a skill:
• A good outcome (e.g., scoring a basket) encourages the student to copy the model
• A bad outcome (e.g., shooting an air ball) may lead the student to not  copy the model
• Models should demonstrate both good form and outcome (good process and product)
• Negative models have some utility if used sparingly ("Your shooting elbow should not be here, it should be in this position")
• Superstitious responding occurs when a non-contingent positive outcome is perceived as resulting from an inappropriate skill component

Self Efficacy

• A model provides a template for students to identify
• what is necessary to perform a skill
• In order to perform the skill, the student know what is
• required, and believe they can do what is required
• Self-efficacy is the combination of understanding the skill requirements and knowing you can perform them

Modeling & Self-efficacy

• Unlike (adult) models may lead to students feeling like they cannot copy the skill
• They are dissimilar from the model
• They have less experience than the model
• Like models may lead students to believe they can do the skill
• They are similar to the model
• The model has less experience than the teacher
• Student models may therefore increase the self-efficacy of the other students

Improving Self-efficacy Through Modeling:

• Using like models
• Modifying
• Modifying or simplifying a skill
• Modifying equipment
• Maximizing
• Maximizing success
• Maximizing repetitions

Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner)

• Students attribute performance outcomes to:
• Internal or external factors
• Stable or unstable factors
• Success is best attributed to internal, stable factors
• Failure is best attributed to external, temporary factors

Attribution: Applications

• Attribute successful performances to internal, stable factors (skill):

• Attribute “failure” to external, temporary factors (inexperience):

• Tie the two together to give hope to the student

• Use the same approach with affective and cognitive objectives